Category: All About Guns
During the morning of March 24, 1945, more than 9,000 men of the US 17th Airborne Division landed behind German lines on the east side of the Rhine.
While the Wehrmacht was in deep trouble, many of their units remained effective, and any available Panzers could pose a significant threat to the freshly landed paratroops. American planners had anticipated this in their preparations for Operation Varsity, and mixed in among the Bazookas and M9A1 AT rifle grenades, the 17th Airborne paratroopers had the new M18 57mm recoilless rifle.
The recoilless guns quickly proved their worth. At the end of Operation Varsity, the 17th Airborne’s combat report recorded that “Five tanks were destroyed, two by recoilless 57mm AT guns attached to the First Battalion, two by heavy artillery and one by a Gammon grenade.”
The 17th Airborne officers also recommended that “training to include familiarization firing with all weapons to include the new recoilless type 57mm and 75mm guns”, and that “recoilless rifles should be included in the T/E of an airborne division.”
Artillery for the Infantry
“While the necessity of providing our troops with superior fire power has long been recognized, experience in this war has sharply emphasized this principle.
Warfare today is not static warfare of position, with great armies confronting each other along well-defined lines and relatively small fronts; rather it is fluid warfare, a swiftly changing panorama of breakthroughs, airborne and beachhead actions, and frequent isolated engagements.
Hence the need for highly mobile and portable weapons quickly became apparent and has resulted in such successful developments as the rifle grenade, the shoulder fired rocket launcher, mortars and similar light weapons.
As the urgency for improved accuracy and increased range in weapons of this type grew apace, the Ordnance Department initiated projects to provide equipment capable of firing high explosive shell with these characteristics, yet light enough to accompany infantry in almost every tactical operation.
A controlling factor in weapon design has always been that of weight, and weight is inevitably largely determined by the phenomenon of recoil. As recoil increases so must the weight of compensating mechanisms or support increase.
To produce equipment that would possess the desired characteristics several weapons have been designed in which recoil has been eliminated. This has been accomplished by balancing the forward and rearward momentum that occurs in firing — the simplest and most efficient method.
The elimination of recoil and consequent heavy carriages has meant that these weapons are extremely light; that they can be produced rapidly and economically and that they can be readily shipped, an important consideration when supply lines cross oceans.
The recoilless rifles have been produced to provide infantry with assault weapons comparable to artillery. Their light weight, simple design, and ease of handling indicate employment in a great many tactical situations heretofore unsupported by superior firepower.” — From “Recoilless Weapons”, produced by US Army Ordnance during February 1945.
Enter the Kromuskit
By World War II, the notion of recoilless guns was not completely new, but no such weapons had yet been developed for infantry use. That changed during the airborne invasion of Crete during May 1941, as German paratroopers deployed the new 7.5cm LG 40 recoilless gun (designed by Rheinmetall).
The Germans continued development of their recoilless gun concept and, by 1942, they fielded the 10.5cm Leichtgeschütz 40. Captured examples were soon in the hands of US Ordnance, and the US Army’s Artillery Section began work on a 105mm recoilless cannon using the 10.5cm LG 40 as a guide. The German style of recoilless ammunition used a plastic “blow out plug” in the cartridge case.
At the same time, the US Army’s Infantry Section assigned a two-man engineering research team to study the recoilless gun concept.
These engineers, William J. Kroeger and C. Walton Musser, working at Frankford Arsenal, were tasked with developing a man-portable recoilless 57mm gun. This weapon was given the designation “T15” and was nicknamed the “Kromuskit”. Instead of a blowout plug, the T15 used a British recoilless development, the “Ordnance, RCL, 3.45 inch”.
The British design featured hundreds of tiny holes in the walls of the cartridge case, protected on the inside by a plastic lining. The American design team also picked up on a RCL 3.45 inch feature by engraving bands onto the 57mm projectile to connect with the T15 barrel’s rifling.
Ultimately, this gave the US 57mm weapon a higher muzzle velocity (1,200 fps) and greater accuracy than other recoilless guns of the era. The T15 was in line with most recoilless cannons, following the “1-to-9 ratio”, with 10% of the propellant gas sending the projectile downrange, while 90% of the gasses are vented out the back to counteract the forward force and achieve the recoilless effect.
Testing quickly revealed that the 57mm Kromuskit was far superior to the Artillery Section’s 105mm design, and the lighter infantry weapon was approved for production. By October 1944, the T15 received the official designation of “M18 57mm Recoilless”. Production of the guns and ammunition was slow to ramp up, and examples were not sent to troops in the field until March 1945, when 50 M18’s were sent to the ETO.
In early 1945, US Ordnance described the new M18 in the following manner:
The 57mm rifles, T15E13 and T15E9, operating on the recoilless principle, have been designed to provide an anti-personnel and anti-tank weapon of lighter weight and greater range and accuracy than other comparable light weight weapons.
This rifle operates on principles like those of a conventional gun except in the characteristics of the breech. Upon ignition of the propelling charge, a controlled amount of gas is allowed to escape to the rear, which, with the forward momentum of the shell, creates equal and opposing forces within the rifle.
The force exerted by the projectile in its forward passage through the tube counteracts the force of the gas escaping through Venturi openings in the breech. Hence, since these two forces are balanced, the rifle does not move appreciably. Moreover, the Venturi openings are designed to exert a rotational reaction which offsets the torque induced in the rifle by the movement of the projectile through the rifling.
The cartridge case of the round for this rifle is smaller in diameter than the interior of the chamber; it is perforated to allow radial escape of gas into the chamber and thence to the rear until controlled by the Venturi openings. The round as thus proportioned is compact and easily transported.
The rifles T15E9 and E13 differ only in the rifling of the tube. The rifling in the T15E9 is one turn in 25 calibers and in the T15E13, one in 30 calibers.
The Extendable Front Handle T3E1 and Bipod T3E1 are provided. The latter, when folded, becomes a shoulder rest, permitting the rifle to be fired from the shoulder in standing, sitting or kneeling positions.
The front handle may be extended and the bipod unfolded to furnish three-point support for prone firing. The rifle may also be mounted on the cal. .30 Machine Gun Tripod. Front Sight, T91 and Sight Mount, T120E2, provide attached iron sights, the rear sight leaf being similar to the cal. .30, M1903 rifle. The Telescope Sight T130E2 may be quickly attached to the Sight Mount T120E2.
The H.E. Shell, T22, was developed to provide a high explosive, antipersonnel round for the 57mm recoilless rifle. This round is provided with a point detonating fuse, T119E1.
The H.E.A.T. Shell, T20E2, was developed to provide a round for use against armored vehicles. It is provided with a point initiating fuse, T123E1, and has penetrated homogeneous armor plate up to 3” at 20° obliquity.
The WP Shell, T23, was developed to provide a round for smoke screening, anti-personnel effect, and for spotting. The T119E1 fuse is used with this round.
All of these rounds use a perforated steel cartridge case instead of the usual solid case. The case has a paper liner that retains the propellant charge and bursts upon ignition, allowing the release of gases through Venturi tubes in the rear of the gun. All shells have pre-engraved rotating bands to reduce the amount of pressure required to expel the shell from the rifle.
SHELL TYPES:
- Smoke (WP), 57mm, T23
- H.E.A.T., 57mm, T20E2
- H.E., 57-mm, T22
Note: All shells weigh 2.75 pounds. All complete shells weigh 7.12 pounds.
The M18 in action during World War II
In the ETO
“We need more of these guns as soon as we can get them.” — 17th Airborne Division report after Operation Varsity
The 17th Airborne Division carried the first M18 rifles into combat during Operation Varsity, the airborne crossing of the Rhine River in March 1945. The recoilless guns were specifically detailed for anti-tank work, and special permission was initially required to fire on targets other than enemy vehicles.
An after-action report of the 507th parachute infantry of the 17th Airborne Division records:
“Anti-tank work was called for as soon as we got down. Only the turret of the enemy tank was visible. I fired one round at 600 yards and hit the turret. His firing stopped and he gave us no more trouble. It was probably a Mk. IV.”
The 57mm quickly proved itself accurate and capable, as another tank was struck in the side and set on fire while it was on the move — an almost impossible shot with a bazooka.
While the armor-piercing performance of the M18’s HEAT round was only about 3” (about an inch less than the standard M6A3 bazooka rocket), the troops were greatly impressed with its accuracy. General Miley, the commander of the 17th Airborne Division, praised the new recoilless rifles for their anti-tank capability:
“The airborne division is particularly vulnerable to armor. With the addition of the 57mm and 75mm recoilless weapons, airborne troops have the means to assist themselves against tanks and self-propelled guns. In my opinion, the recent operation has proved the practicality of the recoilless rifle, and it should be issued to units, with high priority given to airborne divisions.”
I found a few other comments about the use of the M18 in the ETO. Despite its short time in combat, the weapon clearly made a strong impression:
“The effective range of the gun for direct fire is the range of visibility. It is as accurate as an M1 rifle, and you can hit a tank any place you desire. 600 yards would be an ideal distance for fire against tanks.”
“The flashback is no tactical detriment and is no danger to the firer since the gun is so light it can easily be set up so that it has a clear area behind it.”
“Ammunition should be kept in the cardboard cartons until ready for use. It will withstand heavy handling under normal use. We have had no duds and no premature bursts.”
In the PTO
Only a handful of M18’s saw combat in the Pacific Theater, with the first significant use of the weapon coming during the latter stages of the Okinawa campaign.
The US Army publication “Weapons for Jungle Warfare”, produced in June 1944, described the anticipated use of the M18 in the Pacific.
“There is under development by the Ordnance Department a recoilless gun of 57mm caliber which may be used as a shoulder-fired weapon or be adapted to firing from a machine gun tripod.
The project for the 57mm Recoilless Gun was initiated early in 1943. The first pilot model was tested in July 1943, and the first completed service test model was demonstrated on November 9, 10 and 11, 1943.
It is believed that the maximum range of approximately 5,000 yards possessed by this arm, with its accuracy and powerful hollow charge projectile, will permit it to be utilized at ranges up to 4,000 yards for many of the functions now performed by light artillery.
The gun is breech loading and has a rifled tube. It weighs 36 pounds, fires a special 2.75 pounds projectile of the HEAT type (now under development) at a muzzle velocity of about 1,200 feet per second, and has sufficient accuracy to hit a rectangle 25″ x 33″ at a range of 600 yards.”
There were few Japanese tanks to worry about during the late stages of the war, and the M18’s HEAT round could easily penetrate any known Japanese armored vehicle. However, its portability, accuracy, and penetrating power gave GI’s an effective bunker-buster for use against Japanese pillboxes and cave defenses (this was also noted by US Army Ranger units that used the M18 during the Korean War).
10th Army Action Report: Ryukyus, March 26 to June 30, 1945
During the later phases of the campaign the 57mm and 75mm recoilless weapons were tested and used in combat against the enemy with excellent results.
A total of approximately 670 rounds of ammunition was all that was available. Based on the limited use made of these weapons, it is believed they have definite possibilities, especially for close support against fortified positions.
77th Infantry Division, Okinawa report
The development of the 57mm recoilless weapon and the 75mm recoilless weapon appears to be in the right direction, especially in view of many situations where steep terrain impassable to vehicles will be encountered.
Pacific Area Material Report (July 1945)
The 57mm Rifles, T15E13 and M18, operating on the recoilless principle, have been designed to provide an anti-personnel and anti-tank weapon of lighter weight and greater range and accuracy than other comparable light weight weapons. They have been found particularly effective when fired into cave entrances.
The rifles M18 and T15E13 differ only in the rifling of the tube. The rifling in the M18 is one turn in 25 calibers and the T15E13 is one turn in 30 calibers.
An extendable front handle and bipod are provided. The latter, when folded, becomes a shoulder rest, permitting the rifle to be fired from the shoulder in standing, sitting, or kneeling positions.
The front handle may be extended and the bipod unfolded to furnish three-point support for prone firing. The rifle may also be mounted on the caliber .30 machine gun tripod.
Sight, Front, M26 and Mount, Sight, M74 provide attached iron sights, the rear sight leaf being similar to that of the caliber .30 M1903 rifle. Telescope, M86C, may be quickly attached to the Mount, Sight, M74.
Post-WWII Development
In December 1948, the US Army released its “Summary of Recoilless Weapons Development”, and their findings showed that upon deeper review, the M18 was showing several deficiencies. Its weight and insufficient armor penetration were the Army weapons development board’s primary concerns.
The US Army weapons development board stated in December 1948:
57mm Rifle: The present 57mm rifle is too heavy. Development and redesigning should continue to reduce the weight, improve the reliability of mechanical functioning, decrease the time of flight of the projectile, improve the accuracy, and relocate sights and operating mechanisms for the comfort of the operator.
Findings: Recoilless weapons of 75mm or smaller in caliber will not, even with the best-known designed weapon and ammunition, be able to meet the armor penetration required by the Anti-tank Defense Conference.
(Requirements set up by the Antitank Defense Conference at Fort Monroe, Virginia, for a man-portable recoilless weapon which will have an effective range of 2500 yards against the frontal armor of any potential enemy tank with 75% first round accuracy, assuming not more than 5% range determination error under optimum conditions.)
In summary, it is apparent that the 57mm Rifle, M18, does not meet the requirements for frontal armor penetration, or accuracy, and is not provided with sighting equipment to perform the mission.
The present weapon is classified as a close-in anti-tank weapon and due to its lack of penetration must be employed to deliver flanking fire. It is more accurate than the 2.36- or 3.5-inch rocket launchers and has a greater maximum usable range. It lacks the penetration of the 2.36-inch rocket launcher because the projectile is spin stabilized.
However, the Infantry Conference concluded: That the Infantry Regiment retain the present recoilless weapons of 57mm and 75mm caliber, and the following actions be taken.
A) Reduction of breech blast effect, flash and smoke.
B) Reduction of weight and volume of propelling charge.
C) Increase in muzzle velocity and armor penetration.
D) Improvement of waterproofing of propellant.
Korean War, and Beyond
While the M18 was standard issue for US Army rifle companies during the Korean War, its use was normally restricted to bunker-busting and anti-personnel work. Anti-tank duties had passed to the more powerful M20 75mm recoilless rifle.
In Brigadier General S.L.A. Marshall’s 1951 “Commentary on Infantry Operations and Weapons Usage in Korea”, the M18’s use in bunker-busting is compared to the newer, but heavier M20:
“The 57 is too light for such work at ranges exceeding 1000 yards, though troops have wasted an excess of 57 ammunition trying to prove otherwise; of the weight problem with the 75, it is often left behind during movement into the higher ridges, and the attempt is made to substitute the 57 at prohibitive ranges. …
On the other hand, the 57 becomes invaluable during the closing infantry assault on an enemy-held high hill mass. Always a few bunkers remain in operation; those which were protected from the long-range fires by the folding of the ridge are likely to be almost unscathed. Falling back toward these works, after quitting the outer line of foxholes, enemy skirmishers are apt to seek protection in small caves and behind rock outcroppings. The 57 can blast them out from cover which would normally provide immunity to bullet fire.”
During the late 1940s, the US government provided the M18 to several countries as part of various foreign aid packages. A set of blueprints was provided to the Nationalist Chinese, and these were captured by communist forces at the end of the Chinese Civil War. Consequently, the People’s Republic of China copied the weapon and produced it as the Type 36 (later Type 52).
The Type 36 was first encountered with Chinese troops in the Korean War, and then with NVA and Viet Cong forces during the Vietnam War. America’s 57mm recoilless soldiered on, in allied and communist hands, until the early 1970s.
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Lies about SHTF Rifles
The first dozen years of the 20th century saw British gunmakers hard at work, developing those cartridges for the bolt-action repeating rifles which would go on to become the benchmarks of international hunting.
Having made the transition from black powder and pure lead projectiles to smokeless powder and copper-jacketed bullets, the accepted caliber and bullet-weight minimums were definitely being challenged.
Those traveling sportsmen headed for the various British and European colonies were both pushing the boundaries and—through field trials—developing many of “rules” by which we still abide to this day.
Among these cartridges were big-game legends like the .375 Holland & Holland Magnum, .416 Rigby, .404 Jeffery and the .425 Westley Richards. It was common for these prestigious names to pair these larger ‘medium’ bores with a smaller cartridge, one suitable for all game in a pinch, but without the stopping power of their larger siblings.
These pairings included the .350 Rigby Magnum and .416 Rigby, .425 Westley Richards and .318 Westley Richards, .375 Holland & Holland and (initially) the .275 Holland & Holland Magnum or (in 1925) the .300 Holland & Holland Magnum, and finally the .404 Jeffery and .333 Jeffery. I have fallen head-over-heels for the .404 Jeffery, but the .333 Jeffery has sadly faded into near obscurity; yet it played an important role in a few ways, and still makes a great choice for larger thin-skinned game animals.
W.J. Jeffery & Co. of London had released the .404 Jeffery in 1905, designed for use in a Mauser bolt-action repeating rifle, and they necked that excellent cartridge down to hold bullets of .333 inches in diameter. Exactly where that bullet/bore diameter came from is lost to history, and it seems to be entirely proprietary.
Using a case measuring 2.475 inches, with a cartridge overall length of 3.500 inches, the .333 Jeffery fits neatly in a long-action receiver. In near-opposition to the .404 Jeffery’s slight, eight-degree shoulder, the .333 uses a 19-degree 51-minute shoulder to handle the headspacing duties and the 0.538-inch neck will certainly hold even the longest bullets firmly in place.
And long the bullets for the .333 Jeffery are! The original ammunition loadings saw a 250-grain copper-capped hollowpoint bullet at a muzzle velocity of 2,500 fps, generating 3,480 ft.-lbs. of energy at muzzle, and the much more famous 300-grain bullet at 2,200 fps, for 3,230 ft.-lbs. of energy at the muzzle.
Please keep in mind that, common for the era, these velocity and energy figures were derived using a ballistic pendulum and a 28-inch barrel, so in reality the velocity and energy figures you might see in reality would be a bit lower. This is common to a good number of cartridges of this early 20th century-era.
That 300-grain slug has a Sectional Density of .386—a fantastic figure when it comes to penetration—and it was that bullet that helped garner the reputation that the .333 Jeffery had among the early hunters of Africa and India. With a mild recoil and a projectile which offered impressive penetration even on larger game species, the .333 Jeffery has been used on all game species, including the massive African elephant, though the larger bore diameters are invariably better suited for that work.
It was the reputation of the .333 Jeffery’s bullets that led Charlie O’Neil, Elmer Keith and Don Hopkins to mate the .333-inch diameter projectiles with the common and plentiful .30-06 Springfield case, resulting in the wildcat .333 OKH, a precursor to the .338-06, in 1945.
That trio also developed a .334 OKH, using the same projectiles, but with a shortened .300 H&H Magnum case; this was assuredly the inspiration for the .338 Winchester Magnum, which mated a shortened H&H case and the .338-inch-diameter projectiles of the earlier .33 Winchester.
In addition to the rimless cartridge, W.J. Jeffery offered the .333 Jeffery Flanged, a rimmed variant of the design, for use in the single shot and double rifles. Essentially just a rimmed version of .333 Jeffery, the pressures were lowered slightly, and velocities ran about 50 fps or so below those of the rimless cartridge. The .333 Jeffery Flanged remains a rarity, even in comparison to the rimless version.
The major issue with the .333 Jeffery is the lack of available factory-loaded ammunition. When Kynoch ceased the production of ammunition for so many of those cartridges referenced in the classic African and Indian hunting literature, many of those British guns went silent.
Federal Premium did the world a big favor when they brought back ammunition for the .416 Rigby and .470 Nitro Express in 1988, and Hornady’s efforts to provide quality ammunition for many of those British cartridges—the .404 Jeffery, .450/400 3” NE, .450 NE and .500 NE—are most certainly appreciated.
To keep a .333 Jeffery rifle fed, you’re going to have to look to handloading, with cases available from Quality Cartridge (in limited runs), dies from RCBS and CH4D or on a custom basis, and projectiles produced by Woodleigh (in 250-grain softpoint, and 300-grain softpoint and solid), or a custom shop like Hawk bullets from New Jersey. Look to powders in the H4350 or Reloder 19 burn rate, and a good large rifle magnum primer.
“Practical” is not a word I’d associate with the .333 Jeffery, but if I saw a hunter show up in safari camp with a rifle so chambered, I’d beg a look at it.
The cartridge surely represents the Golden Era of African safaris, and that experimental period when the limits of smokeless powder cartridges were being defined. Yes, the .404 Jeffery and .500 Jeffery remain much more popular than the 333 Jeffery, but the fact that the cartridge is wonderfully effective in the field cannot be ignored.
This highly customized Winchester Model 1895 sporting rifle exemplifies the apex of luxury American-made big game hunting guns available in the first decades of the twentieth century. In addition to its premium factory decorations, the gun is also distinguished by its unique combination of special-order features that is not to be found on another Winchester rifle of this type.
Winchester made the rifle in 1913 to the specification of Bernard H. Matthies (1892–1974), the American industrialist, philanthropist, and outdoorsman perhaps best-known today for his sale of a large parcel of land for a fraction of its value to the town of Beacon Falls, Connecticut, for the creation of a public park, today named Matthies Park.
The rifle survives in very good condition and appears to have seen little use. It is one of three deluxe factory-decorated Winchester rifles given to the Met Museum by the Robert M. Lee Foundation in 2018 (acc. nos. 2018.856.4; 2018.856.5a–j)—the first factory-decorated Winchesters to enter the collection.
As the production of firearms became increasingly industrialized in the United States in the 1850s, customers seeking to personalize their machine-made guns could hire an independent gunsmith to add original embellishments, or, alternatively, choose from a variety of customization options executed by skilled decorators employed by the firearm’s manufacturer.
This rifle was decorated by a Winchester factory engraver, possibly John Ulrich (1850–1924). If by Ulrich, it may have been a private commission or executed as a Winchester contractor, as he is believed to have retired from full-time work at the company in 1907. Some Winchester decorators, including Ulrich, maintained independent workshops while working at the company and after leaving Winchester.
The rifle’s blued receiver, box magazine, finger lever, and barrel are engraved with scrollwork and inlaid with gold wire framing three gold-inlaid panel scenes of big game animals—a tiger, leopard, and bear. The buttstock and forestock are carved with floral scrollwork.
These embellishments reproduce designs illustrated in the Winchester Arms Company’s catalogue Highly Finished Arms. First published in 1897, Highly Finished Arms codified for the first time Winchester’s factory decoration options for its line of rifles, offering Winchester customers ten design options for receiver decoration and eight for the stock at varying price points.
They include game scenes surrounded by scrollwork, and foliage motifs combined with scrollwork, with the option to customize for an added cost. The designs were conceived primarily by Winchester factory engravers Herman Leslie Ulrich (1846–1937) and William E. Stokes.
The Matthies rifle features Style No. 1 engraving—the most expensive available—and Style B stock carving—the second most expensive available. Few Model 1895 rifles were embellished to this level, and together these decorations cost nearly ten times the price of the rifle alone.
Other surviving examples of deluxe Model 1895 featuring this combination of engraving and stock carving are serial numbers 78191, 88044, and 88455, and the later rifles 216937, 403953, and 419777. Like the Matthies rifle, these guns are takedowns and their stocks are made from fancy walnut with a high grain contrast.
The Matthies rifle’s numerous special-order features distinguish it among this group. The barrel is threaded for a Maxim silencer—a rare factory modification on Model 1895s. In addition to a special-order Lyman Gun Sight Company leaf sight and front bead sight, the rifle is also fitted with a Lyman flexible rear sight—a spring-mounted sight attached through the upper tang that could return to the upright position after being pushed back by the rifle’s long bolt.
The hand-made, unusually high-combed Monte Carlo style butt stock with rubber recoil pad was almost certainly made to Matthies’s specification, and he would have provided measurements to Winchester to ensure it fit him precisely.
The Winchester Polishing Room Serialization Record Books record that this rifle received its serial number (81851) on April 7, 1913. Unfortunately, the Winchester’s Factory Warehouse Records, which recorded each gun’s specifications, special features, and other data, do not survive for Model 1895s post-dating 1900 (serial numbers 59999 and above).
The Model 1895 began production in 1895 and debuted in Winchester’s June 1896 catalogue. Designed to handle the new, high pressure, smokeless powder cartridges that were coming into widespread use in the United States and abroad, the Model 1895 incorporated design features that differentiated it from previous Winchester lever action rifles, chief among them a long, strong new action, a new nickel steel barrel, a cartridge box as opposed to a tubular magazine, and a jointed finger lever (second model only) that served as an additional safety.
John Moses Browning (1855–1926), whose designs led to the development of nine Winchester rifle models in total, including the Model 1886 and Model 1894, conceived the initial design for the Model 1895. It was the last lever action rifle he designed for Winchester.
The first Model 1895s chambered in .405—Winchester’s most powerful lever action cartridge to date and made for use in the Model 1895—shipped in 1904 and became popular among big game hunters, most notably former President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), who owned three of them. Roosevelt brought the rifles on his famous 1909 Smithsonian Expedition to Africa, lauding their effectiveness in accounts published in Scribner’s Magazine and his 1909 book African Game Trails, and on his 1914 expedition to South America.